Transforming conservation by understanding the role of Indigenous peoples and local communities and their economies

Protected Areas (PAs) are essential for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services (ES), yet conventional approaches often overlook the role of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLCs). This systematic review examines IPLCs' role in conservation through an economies-in-society-in-nature approach. A comprehensive search of Scopus and Web of Science databases (June-December 2024) identified studies examining IPLCs' economic activities, ES valuation, governance systems, and PA access. The review analysed 43 case studies across diverse geographic regions, highlighting monetary and non-monetary values of PAs from IPLCs' perspectives. Findings reveal significant valuation imbalances: provisioning and regulating services (food production, water regulation, carbon sequestration) are predominantly quantified using monetary methods, while cultural and spiritual services—critical to the identity and well-being of IPLCs—are assessed qualitatively and underrepresented in policy decisions. Exclusionary 'Fortress' conservation models that restrict IPLCs' access undermine traditional socio-ecological relationships and resource management knowledge and practices, exacerbating local dissent and cultural and traditional knowledge erosion. Such approaches deliver poor conservation outcomes. Conversely, IPLC-led or shared governance models demonstrate transformative potential, as demonstrated briefly from two case studies from northern Australia and India. Results advocate for a paradigm shift toward inclusive conservation policies that recognise both monetary and non-monetary PA values for IPLCs. Conservation strategies must align with community-based values and development to achieve the ambitious 30 × 30 global conservation target. This approach emphasises integrating traditional knowledge and governance systems into contemporary conservation frameworks for more effective and equitable outcomes.